Knowledge Management in Competitive Advantage

Knowledge Management in Competitive Advantage Introduction â€Å"A companys knowledge management strategy should reflect its competitive strategy: how it creates value for customers; how that value supports an economic model; and how the companys people deliver on the value and the economics. Also, competitive strategy must drive knowledge management strategy.† (Civi, 2000) Competitive strategy is described by Johnson et al (2008) as a firms focus on how to compete successfully in a market. The opening quote directs this essay to look at four areas: knowledge, knowledge management, innovation and acquisitions. The essay aims to display the interdependence of these issues, and demonstrate how they shape a firms competitive strategy. GlaxoSmithKline [GSK] is one of the leaders in the pharmaceutical industry, commanding a seven per cent share of the worlds pharmaceutical market (GlaxoSmithKline, 2009). GSKs mission is to develop innovative medicines and products that help millions of people around the world. As a company with a firm foundation in science, GSK have a flair for research and a track record of turning their research into powerful, marketable drugs. Every hour GSK spends more than  £300,000 on research and development (GlaxoSmithKline, 2009). Currently, a prevailing topic in the pharmaceutical industry is the acquisition of small biotechnology firms by the big pharmaceutical companies for their knowledge (The Economist, 2009). Innovation and acquisition are, therefore, fundamental to GSKs competitive strategy. For these reasons GSK is an ideal candidate as a reference to the discussion of this essay. Knowledge â€Å"At the strategic level the organization needs to be able to analyze and plan its business in terms of the knowledge it currently has and the knowledge it needs for future business processes.† (Civi, 2000). According to Civi (2000) the only sustainable advantage of an organization is what people know and what they do with it. The most crucial knowledge is that which is tacit. As Hamel (1991) states, tacit knowledge is highly personal, and hard to formalize. This makes it difficult to share with others and an elementary part of a firms competitive strategy, and complements Civis view that knowledge is needed for future business processes. Based on this, knowledge is the most important resource a company has. The Resource Based View [RBV] of the firm complements strategy, and is a determinant of competitive advantage (Porter, 1979). RBV assumes that the firm is a bundle of resources which are heterogeneously distributed. Researchers have theorized that when firms have resources that are valuable, rare, inimitable and non-substitutable, they can achieve sustained competitive advantage through implementing fresh value creating strategies which cannot be easily duplicated by competitors (Bar ney, 1991). This belief links directly back to our opening quote regarding value creation, and manifests how knowledge can be exploited and can shape the strategy of the firm. It allows managers and others to build new thinking in the firm, and is a particularly crucial capability in the pharmaceutical industry (Helfat, 1997). Knowledge management A goal of GSK is to build a learning organization by leveraging their knowledge. According to Chase (1997) GSK looks to achieve their goals by delivering innovative medicines to the market place and building core competences for the future through acquisition. This supports the argument that knowledge management plays a significant role in shaping the competitive strategy of GSK through innovation and acquisition. Unlike tangible assets, knowledge does not diminish in value, and through its role as architect shapes the competitive strategy and competencies of the firm, it therefore requires careful management. Knowledge management is a business and institutional process through which firms create knowledge, as (Daveport Prusak, 1998) articulate â€Å"knowledge management is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, and contextual information and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information†. Having come to recognition in the early 1990s, knowledge management was adopted by Glaxo Wellcome in 1997 when it launched a Senior Executive Programme whereby it united 300 of its executives. Its objectives were to share learning across boundaries, build new networks and to inspire entrepreneurial initiatives to stimulate business growth. As (Chase, 1997) stated â€Å"Glaxo Wellcome is rapidly building its knowledge infrastructure; lear ning from reflection and review; benchmarking internally and externally; and creating dynamic adaptive systems which respond to change.† This exemplifies the role of knowledge management in competitive strategy. It is further supported by Eisenhardt and Martin (2000) who describe strategic decision making as a dynamic capability in which managers pool their various functional, business and personal expertise to make the choices that shape the major strategic moves of the firm. As a resource, knowledge is considered as multi faceted, and is an essential starting point for the embodiment of knowledge within organizations, and their overall effective use of knowledge management (McAdam McCreedy, 1999). The ultimate objective of knowledge management is indeed its ‘use, wherein ‘use is the commercial value for the customer, and is easily attributable to innovation (Wilkinson Wilmott, 1994). Innovation â€Å"Innovation involves the conversion of new knowledge into a new product, process or service and the putting of this new product, process or service into use, either by the marketplace or other methods of delivery† (Johnson, Scholes, Whittington, 2008). In the context of intense global competition and the continuously increasing pace of technological development, innovation is considered as mandatory for survival in such a dynamic market environment (Nonaka Kenney, 1991). In this context, more than ever, companies are forced to renew their product portfolio. Only with new products can they sustain their competitive position, and linking back to knowledge management, many researchers believe that tacit knowledge forms the foundation for building a sustainable competitive advantage (Seidler-de Alwis Hartmann, 2008). Jean-Pierre Garnier realized that without huge innovation the company would be at risk from competition and be unable to sustain its market share. Garniers competitive strategy revolutionized GSKs drug discovery and innovation. He commissioned three new drug discovery factories in Madrid, the UK and Pennsylvania, costing $270 million. Each day these factories conduct over 300,000 tests, and have paved the way to speedier drug discovery, providing GSK with the ability to produce a drug in just 3 years half the industry average (Anon, 2004). As a result, in February 2009 GSK had 149 products in its pipeline, more than double the number of rival Merck who had just 74 (GlaxoSmithKline, 2009). This demonstrates the role of knowledge management in creating innovative capabilities, and highlights competitive advantage. Innovation is a key aspect of competitive strategy, and offers the direction for growth. One strategy used by GSK is open innovation. As (Johnson, Scholes, Whittington, 2008) confer â€Å"successful innovation is typically done through relationships.† At GSK, ten of their eleven top consumer healthcare brands began as collaborations with outside innovators (GlaxoSmithKline, 2009), Panadol is the number one over-the counter consumer healthcare product internationally, whilst Sensodyne ranks number two internationally in oral care (Wright James, 2009). GSKs consumer healthcare innovation portal appeals to external innovators and provides access to technology experts who nurture ideas into innovations that align with the companys competitive strategy. It is achieved through legal partnerships, which create mutually beneficial relationships, bringing new ideas to life (GlaxoSmithKline, 2009). A further example of such open innovation was GSKs announcement to share research and p atent portfolios for HIV drugs with its rival Pfizer in a hope of accelerating drug development in this area and create value for customers in less developed countries (The Economist, 2009). This merged business created revenue of $1.6 billion last year, and further exhibits how knowledge management and the pursuit of new knowledge can shape competitive strategy. Acquisition Acquisition routines bring new resources, and are a source of much sought after external linkages, which distribute knowledge and technology into the firm (Gulati, 1999). Two important acquisition incentives are those of market expansion and extending product portfolios (Atuahene-Gima Patterson, 1993). These incentives are today shaping GSKs competitive strategy under the guidance of Andrew Witty. In early 2009 GSK acquired Bristol-Myers Squibb Pakistan for $36.5 million. The deal meant that GSK acquired a portfolio of over 30 well established pharmaceutical brands and bolstered its position as the top selling pharmaceutical company in emerging markets. The portfolio is complementary to GSK, and provides a wealth of new opportunities in fast growing market areas to create value for both the firm and its customers (Bicknell, 2008). This once more exemplifies the role that knowledge management can have in acquisition, and therefore competitive strategy of GSK. â€Å"Strategies are both plans for the future and patterns from the past† (Mintzberg, 1987). This statement recognizes the need for knowledge management due to its inherent experience, values, and contextual information in crafting strategy. It also recognizes the need to identify current knowledge and that knowledge which it needs for future business growth. Powell et al (1996) found that knowledge creation processes that included external linkages in the form of alliances and acquisitions led to superior RD performance. As (Eisenhardt Martin, 2000) also found, external linkages were crucial to effective knowledge creation in their extensive study of the pharmaceutical industry. Glaxos  £9.1 billion acquisition of Burroughs Wellcome in 1995 was driven by expectations of cost savings , a strengthened product pipeline and improved market position as well as the challenges presented by the expiry of the patent of Zantac; Glaxos and the industrys first blockbuster drug (James , 2002). Thus, RBV emphasizes that successful strategy is based on a firms ability to identify, accumulate and deploy resources that match market opportunities and are difficult for competitors to imitate (Amit Schoemaker, 1993). Acquisitions can further help firms reconfigure their resources, allowing adjustment to a changing business environment; in GSKs case it strengthened their ability to deliver their mission, and ultimately the values behind their strategy. This further attests the role of knowledge management in crafting competitive strategy, and supports the need for acquisitions to maintain a competitive advantage. Conclusion Knowledge management should reflect the competitive strategy of the firm, and a firms competitive strategy must drive knowledge management. By exploring knowledge, knowledge management, innovation and acquisitions this work has evaluated knowledge as an asset integral to the firms competitive strategy. In the case of GSK, they have formed their own knowledge management strategy, and identified the importance of knowledge in guiding their innovation and acquisitions. Knowledge management, therefore, plays a major role in GSKs strategy. President John F. Kennedy once said: â€Å"In a time of turbulence and change, it is truer than ever that knowledge is power†. This essay has emanated Kennedys quote by identifying knowledge as the crux of new thinking and value creation, and therefore, economic power. As discussed, knowledge not only complements a firms strategy but also provides competitive advantage. At GSK this knowledge is transformed into powerful, marketable drugs. Shepard (2000) further supports this point by stating that knowledge, while difficult to quantify, and even more difficult to manage is a strategic corporate asset. Having recognized the importance of knowledge to the firm, this work then directed towards knowledge management. As was displayed, GSK adopted their own knowledge management strategy in a bid to encourage entrepreneurial initiatives and stimulate business growth through the release of knowledge. As (Halawi, McCarthy, Aronson, 2006) comment, â€Å"an organization managing knowledge well has the potential to create significant value, but only if it is linked to its overall strategy.† This reinforces the opening quote, and also provides the foundation not only to GSKs knowledge management, but also to their innovation and acquisition. The role of knowledge management is to find, understand and use knowledge to create value, thereby guiding a firms competitive strategy. Innovation is an encapsulation of the ‘use of knowledge management. It can be seen that knowledge management is the formulation of and access to knowledge, experience and expertise that encourage innovation. At GSK this is pursued both in-house and through open innovative relationships. As Halawi et al (2006) support â€Å"knowledge management pleads you to gaze at the informal networks and protocols, sharing experiences and know-how, in addition to cultural and technological elements that drive creativity and innovation.† The discussion finally examined acquisition as a strategy for creating external linkages and delivering new resources and that would not only improve the firms competitiveness but also RD and innovation. Glaxos acquisition of Burroughs Wellcome and Bristol-Myers Squibb Pakistan clearly illustrate this and show knowledge managements role as a driver behind GSKs acquisitions. Through detailing the four areas in this essay, and linking knowledge management and competitive strategy this work has shown that knowledge management can and does play an integral role in shaping the competitive strategy of the firm. It creates competitive advantage and develops core competences. At GSK, this has been achieved through its own knowledge management strategy, innovation and acquisition. It must be noted, however, that many organizations do not understand the strategic importance of their knowledge assets in building, and maintaining sustainable competitive advantage (Halawi, McCarthy, Aronson, 2006). Bibliography Amit, R., Schoemaker, P. (1993). Strategic assets and organizational rent. Strategic Management Journal 14 , 33-46. Anon. (2004). Innovation at GlaxoSmithKline: is it the safest way?: How to ensure creativity enhances your business without threatening the bottom line. Strategic Direction , 16-18. Atuahene-Gima, K., Patterson, P. (1993). Managerial perceptions of technology licensing as an alternative to RD in new product development: an empirical investigation. RD Management 23 (4) , 327-336. Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management 17 (1) , 99-120. Bicknell, S. (2008, December). BMS: Company News. Retrieved December 1, 2009, from Bloomberg: http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=conewsstoryrefer=conewstkr=BMY:USsid=a7nwjjqlOaxc Chase, R. L. (1997). Knowledge management benchmarks. Journal of Knowledge Management , 83-92. Civi, E. (2000). Knowledge management as a competitive asset: a review. Market Intelligence and Planning 18/4 , 166-174. Daveport, T., Prusak, L. (1998). Working Knowledge. Harvard Business School Press , 35-90. Eisenhardt, K., Martin, J. (2000). Dynamic capabilities: What are they? Strategic Management Journal 21 , 1105-1121. GlaxoSmithKline. (2009, September 7). About GSK. Retrieved November 29, 2009, from GlaxoSmithKline Website: http://www.gsk.co.uk/about/index.html GlaxoSmithKline. (2009). GlaxoSmithKline Consumer Healthcare. Retrieved November 27, 2009, from Glaxo Smith Kline Website: www.innovation.gsk.com GlaxoSmithKline. (2009, February). GlaxoSmithKline Investors. Retrieved November 28, 2009, from GlaxoSmithKline Website: http://www.gsk.com/investors/product_pipeline/docs/gsk-pipeline-feb09.pdf Gulati, R. (1999). Network location and learning: the influence of network resources and firm capabilities on alliance formation. Strategic Management Journal 20 (5) , 397-420. Halawi, L., McCarthy, R., Aronson, J. (2006). Knowledge management and the competitive strategy of the firm. The Learning Organisation , 384-397. Hamel, G. (1991). Competition for competence and interpartner learning within international strategic alliances. Strategic Management Journal 12 , 83-102. Helfat, C. (1997). Know-how and asset complementarity and dynamic capabilty accumulation. Strategic Management Journal 18 (5) , 339-360. James, A. (2002). The Strategic Management of Mergers and Acquisitions in the Pharmaceutical Industry: Developing a Resource-based Perspective. Technology Analysis Strategic Management 14 (3) , 299-313. Johnson, G., Scholes, K., Whittington, R. (2008). Exploring Corporate Strategy. Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Mansfield, E. (1988). The speed and cost of industrial innovation in Japan and the United States: external vs internal technology. Management Science 34 (10) , 1157-1168. McAdam, R., McCreedy, S. (1999). The Process of Knowledge Management within Organizations: a Critical Assessment of both Theory and Practice. Knowledge and Process Management 6 (2) , 101-113. Mintzberg, H. (1987). Crafting Strategy. Harvard Business Review July-August , 66-75. Nonaka, I., Kenney, M. (1991). Towards a new theory of innovation management: a case study comparing Canon and Apple. Journal of Engineering and Technology Management 8 , 67-83. Porter, M. (1979). How competitive forces shape strategy. Harvard Business Review 57 (2) , 137-145. Powell, W., Koput, K., Smith-Doerr, L. (1996). Interorganizational collaboration and the locus of innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly 41 (1) , 116-145. Seidler-de Alwis, R., Hartmann, R. (2008). The use of tacit knowledge within innovative companies: knowledge management in innovative enterprises. Journal of Knowledge Management 12 (1) , 133-147. Shepard, S. (2000). Telecommunications Convergence. New York: McGraw Hill. The Economist. (2009, August 6). Big drug firms embrace generics. Retrieved November 29, 2009, from The Economist: http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_TQTSSVVJ The Economist. (2009, July 16). New initiatives to cure diseases of the poor world. Retrieved November 28, 2009, from The Economist: http://www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/displaystory.cfm?subjectid=531766story_id=E1_TQDPTQNQ Wilkinson, A., Wilmott, H. (1994). Making Quality Critical: New Perspectives on Organisational Change. London: Routledge. Wright, T., James, K. (2009). Innovation and Marketing Excellence. London: GSK.

Punjabi Culture

Culture: The word culture  has many different meanings. For some it refers to an appreciation of good literature, music, art, and food  However, for anthropologists and other behavioral scientists,  culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns. The term was first used in this way by the pioneer English Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor in his book,  Primitive Culture,  published in 1871. Tylor said that culture is â€Å"that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.    Of course, it is not limited to men. Women possess and create it as well. Since Tylor's time, the concept of culture has become the central focus of anthropology. Culture is a powerful human tool for survival, but it is a fragile phenomenon. It is constantly changing and easily lost because it exists only in our minds. Our written languages, governments, buildings, and other man-made t hings are merely the products of culture. They are not culture in themselves. For this reason,  archeologist can not dig up culture directly in their excavations.The broken pots and other artifacts of ancient people that they uncover are only material remains that reflect cultural patterns they are things that were made and used through cultural knowledge and skills. Pakistani culture: Pakistan has a rich cultural diversity as the society is largely multilingual, multi-ethnic and multicultural. The Pakistani society comprises various diverse cultures and ethnic communities that majorly involve Punjabi, Sindhi, Baloch, Pashtun, Seraiki, Mohair, Kashmiri, Makrani, and the ancient Wakhi and Burusho groups in the north.These Pakistani cultures have been greatly influenced by many of the surrounding countries' cultures, such as the  Turkic people,  Persian, Arab and other   South Asian ethnic Asian group of the  Subcontinent,  Central Asia and the Middle East. Pakistan is in general linguistically heterogeneous, and no single language can be said to be common to the whole population. Each of its principal languages has a strong regional focus. The languages claimed as mother tongue include Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Balochi, Seraiki, Kashmiri, Brahui, Hindko and Potohohari.Urdu is the national language and one of two official languages of Pakistan (the other being English). Although only about 8% of Pakistanis speak it as their first language, it is spoken as a second and often third language by almost all citizens of Pakistan. Pakistan is a special interest destination as its main attraction includes adventure tourism in the Northern Areas, cultural and archaeological tourism as found at Taxila, Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Swat, and early Mughal and Muslim heritage of Multan, Lahore, Thatta and Peshawar.From the mighty Karakorams in the North to the vast alluvial delta of the Indus River in the South, Pakistan remains a land full of adventures and na tural beauties having peaceful general masses. The enthusiasm for poetry exists at a regional level as well, with nearly all of Pakistan's provincial languages continuing the legacy. Poetry is a highly respected art in Pakistan. Since the independence of the country in 1947 and establishment of Urdu as the national language, poetry is mostly written in the Urdu as well as regional languages. The Urdu language has a rich tradition of poetry and Dr.Allama Muhammad Iqbal is regarded as the National Poet of Pakistan. Apart from Urdu poetry, Pakistani poetry also has blends of other regional languages. Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Seraiki, and Pashto poetry have all incorporated and influenced Pakistani poetry. The variety of Pakistani music ranges from diverse provincial folk music and traditional styles such as Qawwali and Ghazal Gayeki to modern forms fusing traditional and western music, such as the synchronization of Qawwali and western music by the world renowned Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan .In addition, Pakistan is home to many famous folk singers such as the late Alam Lohar, who is also well-known in the Indian Punjab. Folk dances are still popular in Pakistan and they vary according to region. The folk dances of Punjab are Bhangra, Luddi and Sammi, while Jhoomar is the folk dance of Seraiki region. Lewa and Chap are the most popular folk dances of Balochistan. The folk dances of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are Attan, Khattak dance and Chitrali dance. While Dhammal and Ho Jamalo are the popular folk dances mostly performed in Sindh. |Although Western-style clothing is worn in Pakistan, the national dress, shalwar-qameez, is more common in both rural and urban areas. Made of cotton, the shalwar-qameez differs for men and women. Men wear solid, plain colour, and add a coat for formal occasions. For women, the colours are brighter and patterns bolder, with more tailoring common. Women wear a dupatta (scarf) around their heads and sometimes another long scarf around their shoulde rs. Men only wear shorts for athletic events and women never do. A handshake is the most common greeting, although close friends may embrace if meeting after a long time.It is not appropriate for a man to shake hands with a woman. A title and last name are used when addressing someone. Visiting between friends and relatives is a very important social custom and occurs as often as possible. Hospitality is important and guests are made to feel welcome. In small groups, each person is greeted individually. Personal rapport is important. The family is the centre of social life and support. Although increased modernisation has brought many women into public life, the male continues to reign as head of the home.It is common for the extended family, a father and mother, their sons, and the son’s family to live together in the same household. The presiding male of the family has significant influence over the lives of all family members, although women are increasingly taking on acti ve decision making roles. The elderly are highly respected. Pakistani cuisine is as diverse as its people. Pakistani diet, whereas vegetables and beans are as important. The mainstay of the Pakistani diet is chapati or roti. Pakistani food is generally hot and spicy.Rice is part of most meals and desserts. Tea is the most popular drink. Meat plays a much more dominant role in Pakistani food, compared to other South Asian cuisines. Of all the meats, the most popular are mutton, and chicken. Beef is also eaten, and is particularly sought after as the meat of choice for Kabab dishes. Punjabi culture: Punjabi Culture  is the culture of the  Punjab region. It is one of the oldest in world history, dating from ancient antiquity to the modern era. The Punjabi culture is the culture of the  Punjabi people  who are now distributed hroughout the world. The scope, history, sophistication and complexity of the culture are vast. Some of the main areas include Punjabi Philosophy, poetry, spirituality, education, artistry, music, cuisine, science, technology, military warfare, architecture, traditions, values and history. Due to the large number of Punjabi People distributed throughout the world, especially  Pakistan  and  India, many people are increasingly experiencing the culture and becoming influenced by it. Traditional Punjabi culture is being strengthened and expanded in the  Western world. the scope is huge, ranging from Punjabi Philosophy, poetry, spirituality, education, artistry, music, cuisine, architecture etc. People of different languages, cultures, customs and races came to Punjab for various reasons. These immigrants influenced and were influenced by Punjabi culture. Punjabi Literature Punjabi literature  refers to literary works written in the  Punjabi language  particularly by peoples from the historical  Punjab region. The Punjabi language is written in several different scripts, of which the  Shahmukhi, the  Gurmukhi  script s are the most commonly used.The early punjabi literature whereabouts can be seen in the sufi poetry of Fariduddin Ganjshakar. After which Punjabi Sufi poetry developed under  Shah Hussain  Sultan Bahu  ,Shah Sharaf, Ali Haider, Saleh muhammad safoori   and  Bulleh Shah  . In contrast to Persian poets, who had preferred the  ghazal  for poetic expression, Punjabi Sufi poets tended to compose in the  Kafi. Punjabi Poetry is renowned for its deep meaning, beautiful, exciting and hopeful use of words. The large number of Punjabi poetry works are being translated worldwide in many languages.The  Punjabi language  is also famous for its rich literature of  qisse, most of the which are about love, passion, betrayal, sacrifice, social values and a common man’s revolt against a larger system. In the Punjabi tradition, friendship, loyalty, love are given utmost importance and most of the stories in the  qisse  are based on such elements. Waris Shah's qissaà ‚  of ‘Heer Ranjha’ is among the most famous Qisse of all times which is one of the four popular tragic romances of Punjab. The other three are Mirza Sahiba,  Sassi Punnun  and  Sohni Mahiwal The most popular writer/poet to have writtenPunjabi Sufi  Qisse  was  Bulleh Shah. He is frequently quoted by young and old alike with same respect and on matters of both love and God. Punjabi Architecture Punjabi architecture is the feast for eyes. Punjab is bestowed with worth seeing architecture all around. The oldest examples of architecture sculpture and painting in the Punjab belong to the Harappa civilization. The breathtaking architecture include: * Badshahi Mosque is a famous landmark and a major tourist attraction. Badshai masjid was built by sixth mughal emperor Aurengzeb in 1671 and completed in 1673.It is the second largest masjid in Pakistan and fifth largest in the world. * Taxila  is a town and an important  archaeological  site in the  District of the  Punjab  province in  Pakistan. The site includes buildings, fortifications, settlements, showing architectural influence. * The  Wazir Khan Mosque  in  Lahore,  Pakistan, is famous for its extensive faience  tile work. It has been described as ‘a mole on the cheek of Lahore'. It was built in seven years, starting around 1634–1635 AD, during the reign of the  Mughal Emperor  Shah Jehan. Rohtas Fort  is a historical garrison fort built by king  Farid Khan, located near the city of Jhelum  in  Pakistan. This fort is about 4  km in circumference and the first example of the successful amalgamation of Pashtun and Hindu architecture in the  Indian Subcontinent. * The  Khewra Salt Mine  is located in  Khewra, north of  Pind Dadan Khan, an administrative subdivision of  Jhelum District,  Punjab, Pakistan. It is Pakistan's largest and oldest salt mine  and the world's second largest. It is a major tourist attraction. Punjab a rts and craftPunjab has a rich tradition of arts and crafts. The richness of the land is reflected in its handicraft. The people of Punjab lay much importance on their artistry and the minute details of their work. The artistic creations of Punjab are acclaimed all over the world. The skilled and dexterous artisans of the state produce a variety of handicrafts and even the rural women have a major contribution in the production of these fascinating art works. Mud work Mud work is a famous rural practice in Punjab, prevalent from the ancient times.It is a trend in Punjab to mud-plaster the walls of the house and then, create motifs and designs on the mudded walls. Metal work Metalwork is also very popular in Punjab. Utensils made of metals are used in households, as also for religious purposes. Basketry work Thin straws of glass are used for basketry works, which is another Punjabi craft that is immensely popular. Mats, rugs, carpets, curtains and hand fans are woven using these stra ws. Embroidery Embroidery is another extensively followed work of art, known in the state by various local names.Phulkari, an intricate needle work, is extremely popular and is mainly taken up by village girls. Juttis of Punjab Punjabi juttis represent the traditional footwear of Punjab, which is known worldwide for its exquisite design and intricate pattern. Punjab festivals Punjab is well known for its festivals which include: Urs The fairs held at the shrines of  Sufi  saints are called  urs. They generally mark the death anniversary of the saint. On these occasions devotees assemble in large numbers and pay homage to the memory of the saint.Soul inspiring music is played and devotees dance in The most important urs are: urs of Data  Ganj Buksh  at  Lahore, urs of Hazrat  Sultan Bahu  at  Jhang, urs of Hazrat  Shah Jewna  at  Jhang, urs of Hazrat  Mian Mir  at Lahore, urs of  Baba Farid  Ganj Shakar at  Pakpattan, urs of Hazrat  Bahaudin Zakria   at  Multan, urs of  Sakhi Sarwar Sultan  at  Dera Ghazi Khan, urs of  Shah Hussain  at Lahore, urs of Hazrat  Bulleh Shah  at  Kasur, urs of Hazrat  Imam Bari  (Bari Shah Latif) at  Rawalpindi-Islamabad and urs of  Shah Inayar Qadri  (the murrshad of  Bulleh Shah) in Lahore.A big fair/mela is organized at  Jandiala Sher Khan  in district  Sheikhupura  on the Mausoleum of Syed  Waris Shah  who is the most loved Sufi poet of Punjab due to his claasic work known as  Heer Ranjha. The shrine of  Heer Ranjha  in  Jhang  has been one of the most visited shrines in Punjabecstasy. The music on these occasions is essentially folk and appealing. It forms a part of the folk music through mystic messages. Industrial and commercial fairs Exhibitions and Annual Horse Shows in all Districts and National Horse and Cattle Show at Lahore are held with the official patronage.National Horse and Cattle Show at Lahore is the biggest festival where sp orts, exhibitions, and livestock competitions are held. It not only encourages and patronizes agricultural products and livestock through the exhibitions of agricultural products and cattle but is also a colourful documentary on the rich cultural heritage of the Province with its strong rural roots. Other festivals In addition to the religious festivals, Punjabis may celebrate seasonal and harvest festivals, which include  Lohri,  Basant,Baisakhi  and  Teej. Punjabi Cuisine:Punjabi cuisine has an immense range of dishes and has become world-leader in the field; so much so that many entrepreneurs that have invested in the sector have built large fortunes due to popularity of Punjabi cuisine throughout the world. †Sarso ka sag† and â€Å"Maki ki roti† are examples of well known dishes. Punjabi cuisine can be non-vegetarian or completely vegetarian. Home cooked and Punjabi cuisine can vary significantly, with restaurant style using large amount of ghee, clari fied butter, with home cooking concentrating on mainly upon preparations with whole wheat, rice and other ingredients flavored with masala.Within the Punjab region, there are different preferences. People in the area of Lahore prefer stuffed parathas and milk products. In fact, the area is well known for quality of its milk products. The main masala in a Punjabi dish consists of onion, garlic and ginger. Tandoori food is a Punjabi specialty for non-vegetarian dishes. Tandoor, Naan, Pakoras and vegetable dishes with paneer are also derived from Punjab. Punjabi Music: Bhangra is of the many Punjabi art forms that is increasingly being listened to in the west and is becoming a mainstream favorite.Punjabi music is being used by western musicians, in many ways, such as mixing it with other compositions to produce award-winning music. In addition, Punjabi Classical music is increasingly becoming popular in the west. Punjabi music has a diverse style of music, ranging from folk and Sufi to classical, notably the Patiala Gharana. Folk music of Punjab is the traditional music of Punjab produced using the traditional instruments like Tumbi, Algoze, Dhadd, Sarangi, Chimta and more. Sufi music includes the singing of Sufi poetry in several genres.Some of the poets whose compositions are often sung include Baba Farid, Bulleh Shah, Shah Husain, Waris Shah and Mian Muhammad Bakhsh. Classical music includes Patiala Gharana and Sham Chaurasia Gharana. Punjabi Dances: Owing to the long history of the Punjabi culture there is a large number of dances, normally performed at times of celebration, including harvests, festivals and wedding. The particular background of the dances can be non-religious and religious. The overall style can range from the high energy â€Å"Bhangra† men’s dance to the more reserved â€Å"Jhumar†, the â€Å"Gidha† women’s dance.Punjabi dances are an array of folk and religious dances of the Punjabi people indigenous to t he Punjabi religion, straddling the border of India and Pakistan. At times of celebration everyone is encouraged to dance. Married Punjabi couples usually dance together. The husband dances in the style of male Punjabi dances, frequently with arms raised and the wife dances in the style of female Punjabi dances. Common Punjabi Folk Dances for â€Å"Females†: * Sammi * Giddha * Jaago * Kikli * Luddi Common Punjabi Dances for â€Å"Males†: * Bhangra * Jhumar * Gatka * Jalli * Dhamal * Dankara Khatka (Sword Dance) Punjabi Clothes: Basically Punjabi dress is simple and easy to use. One can see a variety in the dresses. The people of Punjab wear according to their traditions. Different dresses are used in rural and urban areas. The Punjabi dresses fulfill the requirements of climate and religion. Turban or a cap is a part of Punjabi dress. The male members of the rural society wear Dhoti, Kurta and Turban. The female members like to wear Shalwar, Kurta and Dupatta both in rural and urban areas. Shalwar, shirt, coat and pant are used in the urban areas by the men. The â€Å"Western† dress has greatly influenced the urban areas.The dress is prepared to fulfill the requirements of â€Å"pardah†. Special dress is prepared f or the bride at the time of her marriage. Punjabi wedding Traditions: Punjabi wedding traditions and ceremonies are traditionally conducted in Punjabi and are a strong reflection of Punjabi culture. While the actual religious marriage ceremony among Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs, and Jains may be conducted in Arabic, Punjabi, Sanskrit, by the Qazi, Pundit, Granthi or Priest, there are commonalities in ritual, song, dance, food, dress. The Punjabi wedding has many rituals and ceremonies that have evolved since traditional times. Punjabi Culture Culture: The word culture  has many different meanings. For some it refers to an appreciation of good literature, music, art, and food  However, for anthropologists and other behavioral scientists,  culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns. The term was first used in this way by the pioneer English Anthropologist Edward B. Tylor in his book,  Primitive Culture,  published in 1871. Tylor said that culture is â€Å"that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.    Of course, it is not limited to men. Women possess and create it as well. Since Tylor's time, the concept of culture has become the central focus of anthropology. Culture is a powerful human tool for survival, but it is a fragile phenomenon. It is constantly changing and easily lost because it exists only in our minds. Our written languages, governments, buildings, and other man-made t hings are merely the products of culture. They are not culture in themselves. For this reason,  archeologist can not dig up culture directly in their excavations.The broken pots and other artifacts of ancient people that they uncover are only material remains that reflect cultural patterns they are things that were made and used through cultural knowledge and skills. Pakistani culture: Pakistan has a rich cultural diversity as the society is largely multilingual, multi-ethnic and multicultural. The Pakistani society comprises various diverse cultures and ethnic communities that majorly involve Punjabi, Sindhi, Baloch, Pashtun, Seraiki, Mohair, Kashmiri, Makrani, and the ancient Wakhi and Burusho groups in the north.These Pakistani cultures have been greatly influenced by many of the surrounding countries' cultures, such as the  Turkic people,  Persian, Arab and other   South Asian ethnic Asian group of the  Subcontinent,  Central Asia and the Middle East. Pakistan is in general linguistically heterogeneous, and no single language can be said to be common to the whole population. Each of its principal languages has a strong regional focus. The languages claimed as mother tongue include Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Balochi, Seraiki, Kashmiri, Brahui, Hindko and Potohohari.Urdu is the national language and one of two official languages of Pakistan (the other being English). Although only about 8% of Pakistanis speak it as their first language, it is spoken as a second and often third language by almost all citizens of Pakistan. Pakistan is a special interest destination as its main attraction includes adventure tourism in the Northern Areas, cultural and archaeological tourism as found at Taxila, Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Swat, and early Mughal and Muslim heritage of Multan, Lahore, Thatta and Peshawar.From the mighty Karakorams in the North to the vast alluvial delta of the Indus River in the South, Pakistan remains a land full of adventures and na tural beauties having peaceful general masses. The enthusiasm for poetry exists at a regional level as well, with nearly all of Pakistan's provincial languages continuing the legacy. Poetry is a highly respected art in Pakistan. Since the independence of the country in 1947 and establishment of Urdu as the national language, poetry is mostly written in the Urdu as well as regional languages. The Urdu language has a rich tradition of poetry and Dr.Allama Muhammad Iqbal is regarded as the National Poet of Pakistan. Apart from Urdu poetry, Pakistani poetry also has blends of other regional languages. Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Seraiki, and Pashto poetry have all incorporated and influenced Pakistani poetry. The variety of Pakistani music ranges from diverse provincial folk music and traditional styles such as Qawwali and Ghazal Gayeki to modern forms fusing traditional and western music, such as the synchronization of Qawwali and western music by the world renowned Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan .In addition, Pakistan is home to many famous folk singers such as the late Alam Lohar, who is also well-known in the Indian Punjab. Folk dances are still popular in Pakistan and they vary according to region. The folk dances of Punjab are Bhangra, Luddi and Sammi, while Jhoomar is the folk dance of Seraiki region. Lewa and Chap are the most popular folk dances of Balochistan. The folk dances of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa are Attan, Khattak dance and Chitrali dance. While Dhammal and Ho Jamalo are the popular folk dances mostly performed in Sindh. |Although Western-style clothing is worn in Pakistan, the national dress, shalwar-qameez, is more common in both rural and urban areas. Made of cotton, the shalwar-qameez differs for men and women. Men wear solid, plain colour, and add a coat for formal occasions. For women, the colours are brighter and patterns bolder, with more tailoring common. Women wear a dupatta (scarf) around their heads and sometimes another long scarf around their shoulde rs. Men only wear shorts for athletic events and women never do. A handshake is the most common greeting, although close friends may embrace if meeting after a long time.It is not appropriate for a man to shake hands with a woman. A title and last name are used when addressing someone. Visiting between friends and relatives is a very important social custom and occurs as often as possible. Hospitality is important and guests are made to feel welcome. In small groups, each person is greeted individually. Personal rapport is important. The family is the centre of social life and support. Although increased modernisation has brought many women into public life, the male continues to reign as head of the home.It is common for the extended family, a father and mother, their sons, and the son’s family to live together in the same household. The presiding male of the family has significant influence over the lives of all family members, although women are increasingly taking on acti ve decision making roles. The elderly are highly respected. Pakistani cuisine is as diverse as its people. Pakistani diet, whereas vegetables and beans are as important. The mainstay of the Pakistani diet is chapati or roti. Pakistani food is generally hot and spicy.Rice is part of most meals and desserts. Tea is the most popular drink. Meat plays a much more dominant role in Pakistani food, compared to other South Asian cuisines. Of all the meats, the most popular are mutton, and chicken. Beef is also eaten, and is particularly sought after as the meat of choice for Kabab dishes. Punjabi culture: Punjabi Culture  is the culture of the  Punjab region. It is one of the oldest in world history, dating from ancient antiquity to the modern era. The Punjabi culture is the culture of the  Punjabi people  who are now distributed hroughout the world. The scope, history, sophistication and complexity of the culture are vast. Some of the main areas include Punjabi Philosophy, poetry, spirituality, education, artistry, music, cuisine, science, technology, military warfare, architecture, traditions, values and history. Due to the large number of Punjabi People distributed throughout the world, especially  Pakistan  and  India, many people are increasingly experiencing the culture and becoming influenced by it. Traditional Punjabi culture is being strengthened and expanded in the  Western world. the scope is huge, ranging from Punjabi Philosophy, poetry, spirituality, education, artistry, music, cuisine, architecture etc. People of different languages, cultures, customs and races came to Punjab for various reasons. These immigrants influenced and were influenced by Punjabi culture. Punjabi Literature Punjabi literature  refers to literary works written in the  Punjabi language  particularly by peoples from the historical  Punjab region. The Punjabi language is written in several different scripts, of which the  Shahmukhi, the  Gurmukhi  script s are the most commonly used.The early punjabi literature whereabouts can be seen in the sufi poetry of Fariduddin Ganjshakar. After which Punjabi Sufi poetry developed under  Shah Hussain  Sultan Bahu  ,Shah Sharaf, Ali Haider, Saleh muhammad safoori   and  Bulleh Shah  . In contrast to Persian poets, who had preferred the  ghazal  for poetic expression, Punjabi Sufi poets tended to compose in the  Kafi. Punjabi Poetry is renowned for its deep meaning, beautiful, exciting and hopeful use of words. The large number of Punjabi poetry works are being translated worldwide in many languages.The  Punjabi language  is also famous for its rich literature of  qisse, most of the which are about love, passion, betrayal, sacrifice, social values and a common man’s revolt against a larger system. In the Punjabi tradition, friendship, loyalty, love are given utmost importance and most of the stories in the  qisse  are based on such elements. Waris Shah's qissaà ‚  of ‘Heer Ranjha’ is among the most famous Qisse of all times which is one of the four popular tragic romances of Punjab. The other three are Mirza Sahiba,  Sassi Punnun  and  Sohni Mahiwal The most popular writer/poet to have writtenPunjabi Sufi  Qisse  was  Bulleh Shah. He is frequently quoted by young and old alike with same respect and on matters of both love and God. Punjabi Architecture Punjabi architecture is the feast for eyes. Punjab is bestowed with worth seeing architecture all around. The oldest examples of architecture sculpture and painting in the Punjab belong to the Harappa civilization. The breathtaking architecture include: * Badshahi Mosque is a famous landmark and a major tourist attraction. Badshai masjid was built by sixth mughal emperor Aurengzeb in 1671 and completed in 1673.It is the second largest masjid in Pakistan and fifth largest in the world. * Taxila  is a town and an important  archaeological  site in the  District of the  Punjab  province in  Pakistan. The site includes buildings, fortifications, settlements, showing architectural influence. * The  Wazir Khan Mosque  in  Lahore,  Pakistan, is famous for its extensive faience  tile work. It has been described as ‘a mole on the cheek of Lahore'. It was built in seven years, starting around 1634–1635 AD, during the reign of the  Mughal Emperor  Shah Jehan. Rohtas Fort  is a historical garrison fort built by king  Farid Khan, located near the city of Jhelum  in  Pakistan. This fort is about 4  km in circumference and the first example of the successful amalgamation of Pashtun and Hindu architecture in the  Indian Subcontinent. * The  Khewra Salt Mine  is located in  Khewra, north of  Pind Dadan Khan, an administrative subdivision of  Jhelum District,  Punjab, Pakistan. It is Pakistan's largest and oldest salt mine  and the world's second largest. It is a major tourist attraction. Punjab a rts and craftPunjab has a rich tradition of arts and crafts. The richness of the land is reflected in its handicraft. The people of Punjab lay much importance on their artistry and the minute details of their work. The artistic creations of Punjab are acclaimed all over the world. The skilled and dexterous artisans of the state produce a variety of handicrafts and even the rural women have a major contribution in the production of these fascinating art works. Mud work Mud work is a famous rural practice in Punjab, prevalent from the ancient times.It is a trend in Punjab to mud-plaster the walls of the house and then, create motifs and designs on the mudded walls. Metal work Metalwork is also very popular in Punjab. Utensils made of metals are used in households, as also for religious purposes. Basketry work Thin straws of glass are used for basketry works, which is another Punjabi craft that is immensely popular. Mats, rugs, carpets, curtains and hand fans are woven using these stra ws. Embroidery Embroidery is another extensively followed work of art, known in the state by various local names.Phulkari, an intricate needle work, is extremely popular and is mainly taken up by village girls. Juttis of Punjab Punjabi juttis represent the traditional footwear of Punjab, which is known worldwide for its exquisite design and intricate pattern. Punjab festivals Punjab is well known for its festivals which include: Urs The fairs held at the shrines of  Sufi  saints are called  urs. They generally mark the death anniversary of the saint. On these occasions devotees assemble in large numbers and pay homage to the memory of the saint.Soul inspiring music is played and devotees dance in The most important urs are: urs of Data  Ganj Buksh  at  Lahore, urs of Hazrat  Sultan Bahu  at  Jhang, urs of Hazrat  Shah Jewna  at  Jhang, urs of Hazrat  Mian Mir  at Lahore, urs of  Baba Farid  Ganj Shakar at  Pakpattan, urs of Hazrat  Bahaudin Zakria   at  Multan, urs of  Sakhi Sarwar Sultan  at  Dera Ghazi Khan, urs of  Shah Hussain  at Lahore, urs of Hazrat  Bulleh Shah  at  Kasur, urs of Hazrat  Imam Bari  (Bari Shah Latif) at  Rawalpindi-Islamabad and urs of  Shah Inayar Qadri  (the murrshad of  Bulleh Shah) in Lahore.A big fair/mela is organized at  Jandiala Sher Khan  in district  Sheikhupura  on the Mausoleum of Syed  Waris Shah  who is the most loved Sufi poet of Punjab due to his claasic work known as  Heer Ranjha. The shrine of  Heer Ranjha  in  Jhang  has been one of the most visited shrines in Punjabecstasy. The music on these occasions is essentially folk and appealing. It forms a part of the folk music through mystic messages. Industrial and commercial fairs Exhibitions and Annual Horse Shows in all Districts and National Horse and Cattle Show at Lahore are held with the official patronage.National Horse and Cattle Show at Lahore is the biggest festival where sp orts, exhibitions, and livestock competitions are held. It not only encourages and patronizes agricultural products and livestock through the exhibitions of agricultural products and cattle but is also a colourful documentary on the rich cultural heritage of the Province with its strong rural roots. Other festivals In addition to the religious festivals, Punjabis may celebrate seasonal and harvest festivals, which include  Lohri,  Basant,Baisakhi  and  Teej. Punjabi Cuisine:Punjabi cuisine has an immense range of dishes and has become world-leader in the field; so much so that many entrepreneurs that have invested in the sector have built large fortunes due to popularity of Punjabi cuisine throughout the world. †Sarso ka sag† and â€Å"Maki ki roti† are examples of well known dishes. Punjabi cuisine can be non-vegetarian or completely vegetarian. Home cooked and Punjabi cuisine can vary significantly, with restaurant style using large amount of ghee, clari fied butter, with home cooking concentrating on mainly upon preparations with whole wheat, rice and other ingredients flavored with masala.Within the Punjab region, there are different preferences. People in the area of Lahore prefer stuffed parathas and milk products. In fact, the area is well known for quality of its milk products. The main masala in a Punjabi dish consists of onion, garlic and ginger. Tandoori food is a Punjabi specialty for non-vegetarian dishes. Tandoor, Naan, Pakoras and vegetable dishes with paneer are also derived from Punjab. Punjabi Music: Bhangra is of the many Punjabi art forms that is increasingly being listened to in the west and is becoming a mainstream favorite.Punjabi music is being used by western musicians, in many ways, such as mixing it with other compositions to produce award-winning music. In addition, Punjabi Classical music is increasingly becoming popular in the west. Punjabi music has a diverse style of music, ranging from folk and Sufi to classical, notably the Patiala Gharana. Folk music of Punjab is the traditional music of Punjab produced using the traditional instruments like Tumbi, Algoze, Dhadd, Sarangi, Chimta and more. Sufi music includes the singing of Sufi poetry in several genres.Some of the poets whose compositions are often sung include Baba Farid, Bulleh Shah, Shah Husain, Waris Shah and Mian Muhammad Bakhsh. Classical music includes Patiala Gharana and Sham Chaurasia Gharana. Punjabi Dances: Owing to the long history of the Punjabi culture there is a large number of dances, normally performed at times of celebration, including harvests, festivals and wedding. The particular background of the dances can be non-religious and religious. The overall style can range from the high energy â€Å"Bhangra† men’s dance to the more reserved â€Å"Jhumar†, the â€Å"Gidha† women’s dance.Punjabi dances are an array of folk and religious dances of the Punjabi people indigenous to t he Punjabi religion, straddling the border of India and Pakistan. At times of celebration everyone is encouraged to dance. Married Punjabi couples usually dance together. The husband dances in the style of male Punjabi dances, frequently with arms raised and the wife dances in the style of female Punjabi dances. Common Punjabi Folk Dances for â€Å"Females†: * Sammi * Giddha * Jaago * Kikli * Luddi Common Punjabi Dances for â€Å"Males†: * Bhangra * Jhumar * Gatka * Jalli * Dhamal * Dankara Khatka (Sword Dance) Punjabi Clothes: Basically Punjabi dress is simple and easy to use. One can see a variety in the dresses. The people of Punjab wear according to their traditions. Different dresses are used in rural and urban areas. The Punjabi dresses fulfill the requirements of climate and religion. Turban or a cap is a part of Punjabi dress. The male members of the rural society wear Dhoti, Kurta and Turban. The female members like to wear Shalwar, Kurta and Dupatta both in rural and urban areas. Shalwar, shirt, coat and pant are used in the urban areas by the men. The â€Å"Western† dress has greatly influenced the urban areas.The dress is prepared to fulfill the requirements of â€Å"pardah†. Special dress is prepared f or the bride at the time of her marriage. Punjabi wedding Traditions: Punjabi wedding traditions and ceremonies are traditionally conducted in Punjabi and are a strong reflection of Punjabi culture. While the actual religious marriage ceremony among Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs, and Jains may be conducted in Arabic, Punjabi, Sanskrit, by the Qazi, Pundit, Granthi or Priest, there are commonalities in ritual, song, dance, food, dress. The Punjabi wedding has many rituals and ceremonies that have evolved since traditional times.

Unit 4 Ip

Unit 4 IP Date: February 3, 2013 1. What two policies could you use to reduce the total amount of emissions? The first policy that I would put in place is a reduction of hours available for the plants to run. I think that by reducing the available operation times, you will have less production and therefore less pollution. This will ultimately force the company who definitely needs all the time they can to produce their products, to find a cleaner way to get the job done. The second policy that I would put in place would be a limitation on the amount of certain chemicals that can be used.I would limit the use of chemicals that cause the most emissions problems and invoke fines on anyone who goes over the limited usage. This would 2. Why do you think they each would work? As I mentioned above, the first policy would force the company to find a better way to produce power without the dangers of the externalities polluting the air. The company will need to operate at a certain level to produce power, so they would have no other choice but to find a way to reduce emissions. With the second policy would only work if there were fines associated with using more than the allotted amount of chemicals that cause pollution.We could have policies all day long, but if there are no consequences or they don’t have anyone to answer to then things will not change. They will continue to produce at levels that are dangerous to the people around them. 3. What would the benefits of each action be (besides emissions reduction)? In addition to the reduction of emissions, we would also gain control of the quality of energy being produced. There would be a consistent product that was produced cleanly and it definitely would be better for the health of the people that live around the power plants.The health benefits are fewer illnesses such as cancer, upper respiratory infections, and skin diseases associated with the release of externalities. 4. What would the costs of each acti on be? With the first policy if it is put into place the power plant is definitely going to lose money. If we limit the amount of hours of production, they will definitely not be able to meet whatever quotas they have already put in place. They will produce less and this could affect their bottom line. With the second policy, it may cost them a little more to put into place different procedures to measure the amount of certain chemicals released into the air.It won’t be nearly as costly as reduced hours would be, but the minimal cost would definitely be worth it. 5. How would you decide what was the best level of emission reduction? I would determine what levels of certain chemicals are safe for the neighborhood through testing and with research that has already been done. There are already studies on what is safe and what could harm a population of people or animals that are located near a power plant. References: Power Plant Pollution Control. (n. d. ). Engineering Services Outsourcing. Retrieved February 4, 2013, from http://www. engineeringservicesoutsourcing

Test Machines, Special Purpose Machines and Flammability ...

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